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The downside was that smaller images were less sharp and detailed, and because less light could be put through them in the finished film the size of an acceptably bright projected image was also limited. Looking for a similar alternative, other major studios hit upon a simpler, less expensive solution by April 1953: the camera and projector used conventional spherical lenses rather than much more expensive anamorphic lenses , but by using a removable aperture plate in the film projector gate, the top and bottom of the frame could be cropped to create a wider aspect ratio. The camera aperture became 22 mm by 16 mm 0.
However, inwhere piece with an installed base of 35 mm film projectors is unnecessary, the format is sometimes used, giving—if used with —the 16:9 ratio used by and reducing film usage by 25 percent. It features everything from an adjustable stand to VESA mounting support and a wide range of connectivity options. The print is usually the universal unit of measurement in the United States, and is widely used in the United Kingdom, and Canada, despite the introduction of metric to the latter two in the 1960s and 1970s, respectively. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lengte in inch Lengte in centimeter cm 3/4 inch to mm u 2,54 cm 3/4 inch to mm inch 5,08 cm 3 inch 7,62 cm 4 inch 10,16 cm 5 inch 12,70 cm 6 inch 15,24 cm 7 inch 17,78 cm 8 inch 20,32 cm 9 inch 22,86 cm 10 inch 25,40 cm 11 inch 27,94 cm 12 inch 30,48 cm 13 inch 33,02 cm 14 between 35,56 cm 15 inch 38,1 cm 16 inch 40,64 cm 17 inch 43,18 cm 18 inch 45,72 cm 19 inch 48,26 cm 20 inch 50,80 cm 21 inch 53,34 cm 22 inch 55,88 cm 23 inch 58,42 cm 24 inch 60,96 cm 25 inch 63,50 cm 26 inch 66,04 cm 27 print 68,58 cm 28 inch 71,12 cm 29 inch 73,66 cm 30 inch 76,20 cm 31 inch 78,74 cm 32 inch 81,28 cm 33 inch 83,82 cm 34 inch 86,36 cm 35 inch 88,90 cm 36 inch 91,44 cm 37 inch 93,98 cm 38 inch 96,52 cm 39 inch 99,06 cm 40 file 101,60 cm 41 inch 104,14 cm 42 inch 106,68 cm 43 inch 109,22 cm 44 inch 111,76 cm 45 inch 114,30 cm 46 inch 116,84 cm 47 inch 119,38 cm 48 inch 121,92 cm 49 inch 124,46 cm 50 inch 127 cm 51 inch 129,54 cm 52 file 132,08 cm 53 inch 134,62 cm 54 inch 137,16 cm 55 inch 139,70 cm 56 inch 142,24 cm 57 inch 144,78 cm 58 inch 147,32 cm 59 inch 149,86 cm 60 inch 152,40 cm. Archived from on 2009-11-26.
Retrieved August 11, 2006. Dickson, followed that up with the , which combined the Kinetoscope with Edison's cylinder.
2.34 Millimeters to Inches Conversion - This increase is on the same gauge since the stills are shot horizontally instead of vertically.
At far left and far right, outside of the , is the soundtrack as an image of a digital signal. To the right of this is the , optically recorded as waveforms containing the audio signals for the left and right audio channels. In the center is the anamorphic picture. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the , which consists of strips 34. For still photography, the standard frame has eight perforations on each side. A variety of largely proprietary gauges were devised for the numerous camera and projection systems being developed independently in the late 19th century and early 20th century, ranging from 13 mm to 75 mm 0. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge. Film 35 mm wide with four perforations per frame became accepted as the international standard gauge in 1909, and remained by far the dominant film gauge for image origination and projection until the advent of digital photography and cinematography, despite challenges from smaller and larger gauges, because its size allowed for a relatively good trade-off between the cost of the film stock and the quality of the images captured. The gauge has been versatile in application. It has been modified to include sound, redesigned to create a safer , formulated to capture color, has accommodated a bevy of widescreen formats, and has incorporated digital sound data into nearly all of its non-frame areas. Today Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film. The ubiquity of 35 mm in commercial made 35 mm the only motion picture format that could be played in almost any cinema in the world, until digital projection largely superseded it in the 21st century. It is difficult to compare the quality of film to digital media, but a good estimate would be about 33. Main article: In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture dry photographic plates in. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer-coated paper. Eastman's was the first major company, however, to mass-produce these components, when in 1889 Eastman realized that the dry-gelatino-bromide could be coated onto this clear base, eliminating the paper. With the advent of flexible film, quickly set out on his invention, the , which was first shown at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences on 9 May 1893. The Kinetoscope was a film loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant W. Dickson, followed that up with the , which combined the Kinetoscope with Edison's cylinder. Beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New York's Blair Camera Co. Edison's aperture defined a single frame of film at 4 perforations high. Edison claimed exclusive patent rights to his design of 35 mm motion picture film, with four sprocket holes per frame, forcing his only major competitor, , to use a 68 mm film that used friction feed, not sprocket holes, to move the film through the camera. A court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edison's claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison had failed to file patents. At the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the used a single circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis. Spehr describes the importance of these developments: The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The standard gauge made it possible for films to be shown in every country of the world… It provided a uniform, reliable and predictable format for production, distribution and exhibition of movies, facilitating the rapid spread and acceptance of the movies as a world-wide device for entertainment and communication. The film format was introduced into still photography as early as 1913 the Tourist Multiple but first became popular with the launch of the camera, created by in 1925. Amateur interest The costly image-forming compounds in a film stock's meant from the start that 35 mm filmmaking was to be an expensive hobby with a high for the public at large. Furthermore, the nitrocellulose film base of all early film stock was highly flammable, creating considerable risk for those not accustomed to the precautions necessary in its handling. The cost of film stock was directly proportional to its surface area, so a smaller film gauge for amateur use was the obvious path to affordability. The downside was that smaller images were less sharp and detailed, and because less light could be put through them in the finished film the size of an acceptably bright projected image was also limited. By the early 1920s, several formats had successfully split the amateur market away from 35 mm: 1. Eastman Kodak's 16 mm format won the amateur market and is still widely in use today, mainly in the Super 16 variation, which remains popular with professional filmmakers. The 16 mm size was specifically chosen to prevent third-party slitting, as it was easy to create 17. This amateur market would be further diversified by the introduction of 0. By law, 16 mm and 8 mm gauge stock and 35 mm films intended for non-theatrical use had to be manufactured on safety stock. Still cameras Main article: Just as the format was recognized as a standard in 1909, still film cameras were developed that took advantage of the 35 mm format and allowed a large number of exposures for each length of film loaded into the camera. The frame size was increased to 24×36 mm. This increase is on the same gauge since the stills are shot horizontally instead of vertically. Although the first design was patented as early as 1908, the first commercial 35 mm camera was the 1913 Tourist Multiple, for movie and still photography, soon followed by the Simplex providing selection between full and half frame format. Oskar Barnack built his prototype Ur-Leica in 1913 and had it patented, but Ernst Leitz did not decide to produce it before 1924. The first Leica camera to be fully standardised was the of 1932. Main articles: , , , , and Inside the photographic emulsion are millions of light-sensitive crystals. Each crystal is a compound of plus a such as , or held together in a cubical arrangement by electrical attraction. When the crystal is struck with light, free-moving silver ions build up a small collection of uncharged atoms. These small bits of silver, too small to even be visible under a microscope, are the beginning of a. A short strip of undeveloped 35 mm color negative film with The emulsion is attached to the film base with a transparent adhesive called the subbing layer. On the back of the base is a layer called the , which usually contains absorber dyes or a thin layer of silver or carbon called rem-jet on color negative stocks. Without this coating, light not absorbed by the emulsion and passing into the base would be partly reflected back at the outer surface of the base, re-exposing the emulsion in less focused form and thereby creating halos around bright points and edges in the image. The anti-halation backing can also serve to reduce static buildup, which could be a significant problem with early black-and-white films. The film, running through a motion picture camera at 12 inches 300 mm early silent speed to 18 inches 460 mm sound speed per second, could build up enough static electricity to cause sparks bright enough to record their own forms on the film; anti-halation backing solved this problem. Color films have multiple layers of silver halide emulsion to separately record the red, green and blue thirds of the. For every silver halide grain there is a matching grain except film, to which color couplers were added during processing. The top layer of emulsion is sensitive to blue; below it is a yellow filter layer to block blue light; and under that is a green-sensitive layer followed by a red-sensitive layer. Just as in , the first step in color development converts exposed silver halide grains into metallic silver — except that an equal amount of color dye will be formed as well. The color couplers in the blue-sensitive layer will form yellow dye during processing, the green layer will form magenta dye and the red layer will form cyan dye. A bleach step will convert the metallic silver back into silver halide, which is then removed along with the unexposed silver halide in the fixer and wash steps, leaving only color dyes. In the 1980s Eastman Kodak invented the , a synthetically manufactured silver halide grain that had a larger, flat surface area and allowed for greater light sensitivity in a smaller, thinner grain. Fuji films followed suit with their own grain innovation, the tabular grain in their SUFG Super Unified Fine Grain SuperF negative stocks, which are made up of thin hexagonal tabular grains. Main article: Originally, film was a strip of cellulose nitrate coated with black-and-white. Early film pioneers, like , color portions of their movies for dramatic impact, and by 1920, 80 to 90 percent of all films were tinted. The first successful natural color process was Britain's 1908—1914 , a two-color additive process that used a rotating disk with red and green filters in front of the and the projector lens. In 1916, William Van Doren Kelley began developing , the first commercially viable American color process using 35 mm film. Initially, like Kinemacolor, it photographed the color elements one after the other and projected the results by. Ultimately, Prizma was refined to photography, with two strips of film, one treated to be sensitive to red and the other not, running through the camera face to face. Each negative was printed on one surface of the same and each resulting series of black-and-white images was chemically toned to transform the silver into a monochrome color, either orange-red or blue-green, resulting in a two-sided, two-colored print that could be shown with any ordinary projector. This system of two-color bipack photography and two-sided prints was the basis for many later color processes, such as , and. Although it had been available previously, color in Hollywood feature films first became truly practical from the studios' commercial perspective with the advent of , whose main advantage was quality prints in less time than its competitors. In its earliest incarnations, Technicolor was another two-color system that could reproduce a range of reds, muted bluish greens, pinks, browns, tans and grays, but not real blues or yellows. Technicolor's camera photographed each pair of color-filtered frames simultaneously on one strip of black-and-white film by means of a prism behind the camera lens. Two prints on half-thickness stock were made from the negative, one from only the red-filtered frames, the other from the green-filtered frames. After development, the silver images on the prints were chemically toned to convert them into images of the approximately. The two strips were then cemented together back to back, forming a single strip similar to duplitized film. In 1928, started making their prints by the imbibition process, which was mechanical rather than photographic and allowed the color components to be combined on the same side of the film. Using two matrix films bearing hardened gelatin relief images, thicker where the image was darker, aniline color dyes were transferred into the gelatin coating on a third, blank strip of film. Technicolor re-emerged as a three-color process for cartoons in 1932 and live action in 1934. Using a different arrangement of a cube and color filters behind the lens, the camera simultaneously exposed three individual strips of black-and-white film, each one recording one-third of the , which allowed virtually the entire spectrum of colors to be reproduced. A printing matrix with a hardened gelatin relief image was made from each negative, and the three matrices transferred color dyes into a blank film to create the print. Two-color processes, however, were far from extinct. In 1934, William T. Crispinel and Alan M. Gundelfinger revived the process under the company name. Cinecolor saw considerable use in animation and low-budget pictures, mainly because it cost much less than three-color Technicolor. If color design was carefully managed, the lack of colors such as true green could pass unnoticed. Although Cinecolor used the same duplitized stock as Prizma and Multicolor, it had the advantage that its printing and processing methods yielded larger quantities of finished film in less time. In 1950 Kodak announced the first Eastman color 35 mm negative film along with a complementary positive film that could record all three primary colors on the same strip of film. An improved version in 1952 was quickly adopted by Hollywood, making the use of three-strip Technicolor cameras and bipack cameras used in two-color systems such as obsolete in color cinematography. Safety film Main article: Although had first introduced -based film, it was far too brittle and prone to shrinkage, so the dangerously flammable nitrate-based cellulose films were generally used for motion picture camera and print films. In 1950 the awarded Kodak with a Scientific and Technical for the safer triacetate stock. By 1952, all camera and projector films were triacetate-based. Most if not all film prints today are made from synthetic safety base which started replacing Triacetate film for prints in the early 1990s. The downside of film is that it is extremely strong, and, in case of a fault, will stretch and not break—potentially causing damage to the projector and ruining a fairly large stretch of film: 2—3 ft or approximately 2 seconds. Also, polyester film will melt if exposed to the projector lamp for too long. Polyester films are not compatible with solvent-based assembly processes. There are also films sensitive to non-visible wavelengths of light, such as. Main article: In the conventional motion picture format, frames are four perforations tall, with an of 1. This is a derivation of the aspect ratio and frame size designated by Thomas Edison 24. The first sound features were released in 1926—27, and while was using synchronized phonograph discs , placed the soundtrack in an optical record directly on the film on a strip between the sprocket holes and the image frame. Comparison of common 35 mm film formats By 1929, most movie studios had revamped this format using their own house aperture plate size to try to recreate the older screen ratio of 1. Furthermore, every theater chain had their own house aperture plate size in which the picture was projected. These sizes often did not match up even between theaters and studios owned by the same company, and therefore, uneven projection practices occurred. In November 1929, the Society of Motion Pictures Engineers set a standard aperture ratio of 0. The Fox Studio markings were the same width but allowed. In 1932, in refining this ratio, the expanded upon this 1930 standard. The camera aperture became 22 mm by 16 mm 0. Since the 1950s the aspect ratio of some theatrically released motion picture films has been 1. Widescreen Main articles: , , and The commonly used format uses a similar four-perf frame, but an anamorphic lens is used on the camera and projector to produce a wider image, today with an aspect ratio of about 2. The ratio was formerly 2. The image, as recorded on the negative and print, is horizontally compressed squeezed by a factor of 2. The unexpected success of the widescreen process in 1952 led to a boom in innovations to compete with the growing audiences of television and the dwindling audiences in movie theaters. These processes could give theatergoers an experience that television could not at that time—color, stereophonic sound and panoramic vision. Looking for a similar alternative, other major studios hit upon a simpler, less expensive solution by April 1953: the camera and projector used conventional spherical lenses rather than much more expensive anamorphic lenses , but by using a removable aperture plate in the film projector gate, the top and bottom of the frame could be cropped to create a wider aspect ratio. Paramount Studios began this trend with their aspect ratio of 1. It was Universal Studios, however, with their May release of that introduced the now standard 1. Other studios followed suit with aspect ratios of 1. For a time, these various ratios were used by different studios in different productions, but by 1956, the aspect ratio of 1. The standard, in some European countries, became 1. In September 1953, 20th Century Fox debuted CinemaScope with their production of to great success. Some developments, such as SuperScope and , however, were truly entirely different formats. By the early 1960s, however, would eventually solve many of the CinemaScope lenses' technical limitations with their own lenses, and by 1967, CinemaScope was replaced by Panavision and other third-party manufacturers. The 1950s and 1960s saw many other novel processes using 35 mm, such as , SuperScope, and , most of which ultimately became obsolete. VistaVision, however, would be revived decades later by and other studios for special effects work, while a SuperScope variant became the predecessor to the modern format that is popular today. Super 35 Main article: The concept behind Super 35 originated with the Tushinsky Brothers' format, particularly the SuperScope 235 specification from 1956. Although this cropping may seem extreme, by expanding the negative area out perf-to-perf, Super 35 creates a 2. The cropped frame is then converted at the intermediate stage to a 4-perf anamorphically squeezed print compatible with the anamorphic projection standard. This optical step reduced the overall quality of the image and made Super 35 a controversial subject among cinematographers, many who preferred the higher image quality and frame negative area of anamorphic photography especially with regard to. With the advent of DI at the beginning of the 21st century, however, Super 35 photography has become even more popular, since everything could be done digitally, scanning the original 4-perf 1. This process of creating the aspect ratio in the computer allows the studios to perform all post-production and editing of the movie in its original aspect 1. It is clear, therefore, that a change to a 3-perf pulldown would allow for a 25% reduction in film consumption whilst still accommodating the full 1. Ever since the introduction of these widescreen formats in the 1950s various film directors and cinematographers have argued in favour of the industry making such a change. The idea was later taken up by the Swedish film-maker Rune Ericson who was a strong advocate for the 3-perf system. Ericson shot his 51st feature Pirates of the Lake in 1986 using two Panaflex cameras modified to 3-perf pulldown and suggested that the industry could change over completely over the course of ten-years. However the movie industry did not make the change mainly because it would have required the modification of the thousands of existing 35 mm projectors in movie theaters all over the world. Whilst it would have been possible to shoot in 3-perf and then convert to standard 4-perf for release prints the extra complications this would cause and the additional optical printing stage required made this an unattractive option at the time for most film makers. However, in , where compatibility with an installed base of 35 mm film projectors is unnecessary, the format is sometimes used, giving—if used with —the 16:9 ratio used by and reducing film usage by 25 percent. Because of 3-perf's incompatibility with standard 4-perf equipment, it can utilize the whole negative area between the perforations without worrying about compatibility with existing equipment; the Super 35 image area includes what would be the soundtrack area in a standard print. All 3-perf negatives require optical or digital conversion to standard 4-perf if a film print is desired, though 3-perf can easily be transferred to video with little to no difficulty by modern or. With now a standard process for feature film post-production, 3-perf is becoming increasingly popular for feature film productions which would otherwise be averse to an optical conversion stage. Similar to still photography, the format uses a camera running 35 mm film horizontally instead of vertically through the camera, with frames that are eight perforations long, resulting in a wider aspect ratio of 1. This format is unprojectable in standard theaters and requires an optical step to reduce the image into the standard 4-perf vertical 35 mm frame. While the format was dormant by the early 1960s, the camera system was revived for visual effects by at , starting with , as a way of reducing granularity in the by having increased area at the point of image origination. Its usage has again declined since the dominance of computer-based visual effects, although it still sees limited utilization. BH perfs Film perforations were originally round holes cut into the side of the film, but as these perforations were subject to wear and deformation, the shape was changed to what is now called the BH perforation, which has straight top and bottom edges and outward curving sides. The BH perforation's dimensions are 0. The BH1866 perforation, or BH perforation with a of 0. KS perfs Because BH perfs have sharp corners, the repeated use of the film through intermittent movement projectors creates strain that can easily tear the perforations. Furthermore, they tended to shrink as the print slowly decayed. Therefore, larger perforations with a rectangular base and rounded corners were introduced by in 1924 to improve steadiness, registration, durability, and longevity. Their durability makes KS perfs the ideal choice for some but not all intermediate and all release prints, and which require special use, such as high-speed filming, but not for , , , or work as these specific applications demand the more accurate registration which is only possible with BH or DH perforations. The increased height also means that the image registration was considerably less accurate than BH perfs, which remains the standard for negatives. The KS1870 perforation, or KS perforation with a of 0. These two perforations have remained by far the most commonly used ones. BH perforations are also known as N negative and KS as P positive. DH perfs The Dubray—Howell DH perforation was first proposed in 1932 to replace the two perfs with a single hybrid. The proposed standard was, like KS, rectangular with rounded corners and a width of 0. This gave it longer projection life but also improved registration. One of its primary applications was usage in 's dye imbibition printing dye transfer. The DH perf never had broad uptake, and Kodak's introduction of monopack Eastmancolor film in the 1950s reduced the demand for dye transfer, although the DH perf persists in special application intermediate films to this day. CS perfs In 1953, the introduction of by required the creation of a different shape of perforation which was nearly square and smaller to provide space for four magnetic sound stripes for stereophonic and surround sound. Their dimensions are 0. Due to the size difference, CS perfed film cannot be run through a projector with standard KS sprocket teeth, but KS prints can be run on sprockets with CS teeth. Shrunken film with KS prints that would normally be damaged in a projector with KS sprockets may sometimes be run far more gently through a projector with CS sprockets because of the smaller size of the teeth. Magnetic striped 35 mm film became obsolete in the 1980s after the advent of , as a result film with CS perfs is no longer manufactured. During continuous contact printing, the raw stock and the negative are placed next to one another around the sprocket wheel of the printer. The negative, which is the closer of the two to the sprocket wheel thus creating a slightly shorter path , must have a marginally shorter pitch between perforations 0. While cellulose nitrate and cellulose diacetate stocks used to shrink during processing slightly enough to have this difference naturally occur, modern safety stocks do not shrink at the same rate, and therefore negative and some intermediate stocks are perforated at a pitch of 0. Three different digital soundtrack systems for 35 mm cinema release prints were introduced during the 1990s. They are: , which is stored between the perforations on the sound side; , stored in two strips along the outside edges beyond the perforations ; and , in which sound data is stored on separate synchronized by a track on the film just to the right of the analog soundtrack and left of the frame. Because these soundtrack systems appear on different parts of the film, one movie can contain all of them, allowing broad distribution without regard for the sound system installed at individual theatres. The analogue optical track technology has also changed: in the early years of the 21st century distributors changed to using cyan dye optical soundtracks instead of applicated tracks, which use environmentally unfriendly chemicals to retain a silver black-and-white soundtrack. Because traditional incandescent exciter lamps produce copious amounts of infra-red light, and cyan tracks do not absorb infra-red light, this change has required theaters to replace the incandescent exciter lamp with a complementary colored red LED or laser. These LED or laser exciters are backwards-compatible with older tracks. The film 2003 was the first to be released with only cyan tracks. These prints used a silver plus dye soundtrack that were printed into the magenta dye layer. The advantage gained was an optical soundtrack, with low levels of sibilant cross-modulation distortion, on both types of sound heads. Both left and right eye images are contained within the normal height of a single 2D frame. The success of digitally projected 3D movies in the first two decades of the 21st century led to a demand from some theater owners to be able to show these movies in 3D without incurring the high capital cost of installing digital projection equipment. To satisfy that demand, a number of systems had been proposed for 3D systems based on 35 mm film by , and others. These systems are improved version of the 3D prints first introduced in the 1960s. In these prints a left-right pair of 2. The frame dimensions are based on those of the 2-perf camera format used in the 1960s and '70s. However, when used for 3D the left and right frames are pulled down together, thus the standard 4-perf pulldown is retained, minimising the need for modifications to the projector or to long-play systems. The linear speed of film through the projector and sound playback both remain exactly the same as in normal 2D operation. The Technicolor system uses the polarisation of light to separate the left and right eye images and for this they rent to exhibitors a combination splitter-polarizer-lens assembly which can be fitted to a lens turret in the same manner as an anamorphic lens. In contrast, the Panavision system uses a spectral comb filter system, but their combination splitter-filter-lens is physically similar to the Technicolor assembly and can be used in the same way. No other modifications are required to the projector for either system, though for the Technicolor system a silver screen is necessary, as it would be with polarised-light digital 3D. Thus a programme can readily include both 2D and 3D segments with only the lens needing to be changed between them. In transition period centered around 2005—2015, the rapid conversion of the cinema exhibition industry to has seen 35 mm film projectors removed from most of the projection rooms as they are replaced by digital projectors. By the mid-2010s, most of the theaters across the world have been converted to digital projection, while others are still running 35 mm projectors. In spite of the uptake in digital projectors installed in global cinemas, 35mm film remains in a market of enthusiasts and format lovers. Dickson slit standard 120 size Kodak film down the middle and perforated the resultant strip of film, only 0. An account of this is given in an article by Dickson in the December, 1933 SMPTE Journal cited above. The standard size was increased at the May 1929 meeting of the SMPE and published in 1930. Journal of the SMPTE. Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers. XIV 5 : 545—566. XXI 4 : 280—293. Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers. Society of Motion Picture Engineers. XXI 6 : 435—455. Retrieved March 13, 2012. SMPTE STANDARD for Motion-Picture Film 35 mm - Perforated KS. Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. Retrieved August 12, 2006. 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Retrieved August 10, 2006. American Cinematographer Manual 8th ed. Retrieved August 10, 2006. Retrieved August 10, 2006. The Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Society of Camera Operators Magazine Summer 1994. Archived from on January 3, 2004. Retrieved August 25, 2016. Archived from on July 13, 2006. Retrieved August 10, 2006. Archived from PDF on 2013-06-01. The Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford: Oxford University Press. The Camera Assistant: A Complete Professional Handbook. Archived from on October 16, 2006. Retrieved August 11, 2006. Motion Picture Film Processing. Retrieved March 14, 2012. Archived from on October 31, 2007. Retrieved August 11, 2006. Archived from on April 12, 2008. Retrieved March 14, 2012. Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers. Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers. New York, NY: The Society. XVII 3 : 431—436. Archived from on March 14, 2012. Retrieved March 14, 2012. Archived from on September 5, 2006. Retrieved August 11, 2006. SMPTE STANDARD for Motion-Picture Film 35 mm - Perforated CS-1870. Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. White Plains, New York. Archived from on 2010-06-09. Archived from PDF on September 21, 2006. Retrieved August 11, 2006. Archived from on 2009-11-26. Retrieved 29 August 2016. Archived from on 2012-04-07. Retrieved 29 August 2016.